Nurses are the largest category of health care professionals in almost all EU countries. On average, there are 8.3 nurses per 1 000 population in 2020 in EU countries (The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2022). The increase in chronic diseases, an ageing population, global health issues (Shustack, 2020), e.g. pandemics (Lake, 2020), many environmental risks (Alvarez-Nieto et al., 2018) and technological solutions have changed health care, nursing and all working life (European Commission, 2017). The competence of nurses is an important issue in health care; patient safety and the quality of care rely upon nurses’ competence in any health system.