A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal
Relative frequencies of core-collapse supernovae as a function of metallicity: Observations versus theoretical predictions; 
Authors: Gutiérrez, Claudia P.; Galbany, Lluís; Anderson, Joseph P.; Souropanis, Dimitris; Zapartas, Emmanouil; Dessart, Luc; Kotak, Rubina
Publisher: EDP Sciences
Publication year: 2026
Journal: Astronomy and Astrophysics
Article number: A98
Volume: 710
ISSN: 0004-6361
eISSN: 1432-0746
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202659467
Publication's open availability at the time of reporting: Open Access
Publication channel's open availability : Open Access publication channel
Web address : https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202659467
Self-archived copy’s web address: https://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/527096525
Self-archived copy's licence: CC BY
Self-archived copy's version: Publisher`s PDF
Understanding supernova (SN) progenitors remains a major challenge in astrophysics, as it involves untangling the complex interplay between stellar physics (e.g. evolution, binarity, and explosion) and environments (e.g. metallicity and the star formation rate). To address this, we present relative frequencies of core-collapse SNe (CCSNe) as a function of metallicity using two complementary samples: (i) all literature SNe that have associated host galaxy parameters (absolute magnitudes, stellar masses, and/or oxygen abundances); and (ii) SNe classified between 2019 and 2024 with host magnitude information, including distance-limited subsamples within 50 Mpc and 100 Mpc. We find that CCSNe from the literature sample are associated with luminous galaxies, reflecting both the higher stellar content of such systems and the selection biases inherent to targeted surveys. In contrast, the distance-limited subsamples provide a less biased view, showing that hydrogen-rich SNe (SNe II) are more commonly found in lower-luminosity galaxies than stripped-envelope SNe (SESNe). Comparisons between the literature sample and the distance-limited subsamples indicate that trends derived from global measurements remain consistent. For the SESNe-to-SNe II ratios, we confirm a slight increase with metallicity, reflecting a higher fraction of SESNe in metal-rich environments. Comparison with theoretical predictions shows that models that include either binary interactions or rotation can broadly reproduce the observed trends, although degeneracies remain and no single scenario uniquely explains the data. Overall, our results provide observational constraints on massive-star evolution and highlight the key role of metallicity and binarity in shaping the observed diversity of CCSNe.
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We thank the anonymous referee for the comments and suggestions that have helped us to improve the paper. C.P.G. acknowledges financial support from the Secretary of Universities and Research (Government of Catalonia) and by the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme of the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie and the Beatriu de Pinós 2021 BP 00168 programme. C.P.G. and L.G. recognise the support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN) and the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033 under the PID2023-151307NB-I00 SNNEXT project, from Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) under the PIE project 20215AT016 and the program Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2020-001058-M, and from the Departament de Recerca i Universitats de la Generalitat de Catalunya through the 2021-SGR-01270 grant.