A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal
Unpredictable maternal signals and developmental profiles of child executive function from infancy to early childhood
Authors: Takio, Fiia; Peura, Pilvi; Yada, Akie; Karonen, Anniina; Juntunen, Pauliina; Holmberg, Eeva; Eskola, Eeva; Nordenswan, Elisabeth; Deater-Deckard, Kirby; Kataja, Eeva-Leena; Tolvanen, Asko; Perasto, Laura; Mainela-Arnold, Elina; Davis, Elysia Poggi; Karlsson, Hasse; Karlsson, Linnea; Nolvi, Saara; Korja, Riikka
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Publication year: 2026
Journal: Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Article number: 101672
Volume: 78
ISSN: 1878-9293
eISSN: 1878-9307
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101672
Publication's open availability at the time of reporting: Open Access
Publication channel's open availability : Open Access publication channel
Web address : https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2026.101672
Self-archived copy’s web address: https://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/515549458
Self-archived copy's licence: CC BY
Self-archived copy's version: Publisher`s PDF
Early executive function (EF) development is crucial for later cognitive and socioemotional outcomes, yet the role of environmental unpredictability, particularly in patterns of maternal sensory signals, remains underexplored. In this longitudinal study, we investigated the associations between unpredictability in maternal sensory signals and children’s early EF profiles from infancy through the preschool years. Using a population-based birth cohort, we observed a small but significant decrease in the unpredictability of maternal sensory signals over time. This suggests that caregiving predictability may increase as children develop. Nonetheless, within-individual unpredictability showed some stability across time. Importantly, lower unpredictability of maternal sensory signals was associated with membership in more favorable EF profiles, characterized by stronger working memory performance at age five. In contrast, children exposed to more unpredictable maternal sensory signals demonstrated poorer early EF development. These findings build on and extend prior work by modeling unpredictability of maternal sensory signals longitudinally beyond toddlerhood and linking it to children's EF development, highlighting the prolonged sensitivity of EFs to caregiving behavior. Our results underscore that unpredictability in caregiving behavior is a unique and critical factor in shaping early cognitive development and self-regulation. The findings align with emerging cross-species research indicating that patterns of sensory signals are vital not only for sensory processing but also for the development of higher-order cognitive functions. Together, these findings highlight the importance of addressing caregiving unpredictability in early interventions aimed at supporting children’s EF development.
Downloadable publication This is an electronic reprint of the original article. |  |
Funding information in the publication:
Fiia Takio: The Finnish Cultural Foundation.
Kirby Deater-Deckard: Fulbright-University of Turku Scholar Award, Fulbright Finland Foundation.
Saara Nolvi: Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, State Grants for Clinical Research, Emil Aaltonen Foundation, Finnish Cultural Foundation, Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation.
Riikka Korja: Research Council of Finland (308252, CoE, InterLearn, 346121), Finnish Cultural Foundation, Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, State Grants for Clinical Research.
Pauliina Juntunen: Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, The Finnish Cultural Foundation's Varsinais-Suomen Maakuntarahasto, The Olvi Foundation.
Anniina Karonen: Jenny and Antti Wihuri Foundation.
Elysia Poggi Davis: NIH/NIMH Conte Center P50 MH096889.
Linnea Karlsson: Research Council of Finland (#308176, #308589), Strategic Research Council established within the Research Council of Finland (#352649, #352655), Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation, Finnish Cultural Foundation, Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation, Finnish State Grants for Clinical Research.
Eeva-Leena Kataja: Academy of Finland (#346790), Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation Juho Vainio Foundation.
