A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal

Whistler Critical Mach Number Concept Revisited




AuthorsBalikhin, Michael A.; Agapitov, Oleksiy V.; Krasnoselskikh, Vladimir; Roytershteyn, Vadim; Walker, Simon N.; Gedalin, Michael; Jeba Raj, Immanuel Christopher; Colomban, Lucas

PublisherAmerican Geophysical Union (AGU)

Publication year2026

Journal: Journal of Geophysical Research: Space Physics

Article numbere2025JA034905

Volume131

Issue1

ISSN2169-9380

eISSN2169-9402

DOIhttps://doi.org/10.1029/2025JA034905

Publication's open availability at the time of reportingOpen Access

Publication channel's open availability Partially Open Access publication channel

Web address https://doi.org/10.1029/2025ja034905

Self-archived copy’s web addresshttps://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/509013992

Self-archived copy's licenceCC BY NC

Self-archived copy's versionPublisher`s PDF


Abstract

The formation of a collisionless shock is the result of a balance between nonlinear steepening and processes that counteract this steepening. Dispersive shocks are shocks in which dispersive processes counterbalance the front steepening and are formed when the dispersive spatial scale exceeds scales associated with resistive processes. Oblique dispersive shocks are characterized by a phase standing wave precursor adjacent to the magnetic ramp. The whistler critical Mach number is defined as the maximum Mach number for which a linear whistler wave can phase stand upstream of the shock front. It was widely accepted that if the Mach number exceeds , linear whistler waves propagating along the shock normal are not able to "phase stand" in the upstream flow, and "& mldr;the shock will be initiated by a monotonic ramp." (Kennel et al., 1985, https://doi.org/10.1029/gm034p0001). In this study, we present results of numerical simulations and observations of shocks with that reveal the occurrence of an alternative scenario. For both the shock resulting from kinetic particle-in-cell simulations and that observed by MMS, the propagation direction of the precursor deviates from the shock normal direction. As a result, the velocity of the surface of constant phase along the shock normal exceeds the phase speed of these waves. It is shown that the propagation of the surface of constant phase along the shock normal occurs at a velocity that is nearly equal to the shock speed. Hence, these waves are "phase standing along the shock normal" in spite of .


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Funding information in the publication
The authors acknowledge support from the International Space Science Institute, Bern, Switzerland. The simulations were performed using computational resources provided by the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) at The University of Texas at Austin. MAB and SW were supported by the Science and Technology Facilities Council [ST/Y001575/1]. OVA, VK, and LC were supported by NASA Grants 80NSSC20K0697 and 80NSSC21K1770. OVA and LC were partially supported by NASA's Living with a Star (LWS) program (contract 80NSSC20K0218), and NASA Grants contracts 80NSSC22K0433 and 80NSSC22K0522. The work of VR was supported by NASA Grant 80NSSC21K1680. I.C.J. acknowledges support from the Research Council of Finland (X-Scale, Grant 371569).


Last updated on 13/02/2026 11:33:35 AM