A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal
Long Duration Gamma-Ray Flares: The Number Problem
Authors: Vainio, Rami; Afanasiev, Alexandr; Gopalswamy, Nat; Jin, Meng; Mäkelä, Pertti; Ryan, James
Publisher: Springer Nature
Publication year: 2026
Journal: Solar Physics
Article number: 6
Volume: 301
Issue: 1
ISSN: 0038-0938
eISSN: 1573-093X
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-025-02600-2
Publication's open availability at the time of reporting: Open Access
Publication channel's open availability : Partially Open Access publication channel
Web address : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11207-025-02600-2
Self-archived copy’s web address: https://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/508993513
Self-archived copy's licence: CC BY
Self-archived copy's version: Publisher`s PDF
Long-duration gamma-ray flare (LDGRF) events observed by the Fermi/ Large Area Telescope have presented a puzzle for modelers. One of the ideas to account for their long duration is to assume that particles accelerated at shocks driven by fast coronal mass ejections (CMEs) would be the able to be trapped in the space between the shock and the Sun and would be able to precipitate from this volume over an extended amount of time. We present a simple leaky-box type model for the precipitating > 500 MeV proton flux in a system, where a coronal shock feeds accelerated protons into the volume between the shock and the solar surface and a relatively small amount of scattering keeps the distribution isotropic and homogeneous inside the volume. We demonstrate that by choosing fully realistic shock parameters the total number of precipitating protons can be brought to an agreement with observations. We also demonstrate that durations of several hours for these events are fully within reach of the modeling without using unreasonable choices for parameters. Thus, CME-driven shocks in the coronal and inner solar wind plasma are a plausible candidate to account for the LDGRF events.
Downloadable publication This is an electronic reprint of the original article. |
Funding information in the publication:
RV and AA acknowledge the funding from the Research Council of Finland (project N. 352847). MJ acknowledges support from NASA SWxC grant 80NSSC23M0191 (CLEAR), NASA LWS grant 80NSSC21K1327, and NASA HSR grant 80NSSC24K0136.