A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal
The diversity of strongly interacting Type IIn supernovae
Authors: Salmaso, I.; Cappellaro, E.; Tartaglia, L.; Anderson, J. P.; Benetti, S.; Bronikowski, M.; Cai, Y. Z.; Charalampopoulos, P.; Chen, T. -w.; Concepcion, E.; Elias-Rosa, N.; Galbany, L.; Gromadzki, M.; Gutierrez, C. P.; Kankare, E.; Lundqvist, P.; Matilainen, K.; Mazzali, P. A.; Moran, S.; Mueller-Bravo, T. E.; Nicholl, M.; Pastorello, A.; Pessi, P. J.; Pessi, T.; Petrushevska, T.; Pignata, G.; Reguitti, A.; Sollerman, J.; Srivastav, S.; Stritzinger, M.; Tomasella, L.; Valerin, G.
Publisher: EDP Sciences
Publishing place: LES ULIS CEDEX A
Publication year: 2025
Journal: Astronomy and Astrophysics
Journal name in source: Astronomy & Astrophysics
Journal acronym: ASTRON ASTROPHYS
Article number: A29
Volume: 695
Number of pages: 23
ISSN: 0004-6361
eISSN: 1432-0746
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451764
Web address : https://doi.org/10.1051/0004-6361/202451764
Self-archived copy’s web address: https://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/491322823
Context. At late stages, massive stars experience strong mass-loss rates, losing their external layers and thus producing a dense H-rich circumstellar medium (CSM). After the explosion of a massive star, the collision and continued interaction of the supernova (SN) ejecta with the CSM power the SN light curve through the conversion of kinetic energy into radiation. When the interaction is strong, the light curve shows a broad peak and high luminosity that lasts for several months. For these SNe, the spectral evolution is also slower compared to non-interacting SNe. Notably, energetic shocks between the ejecta and the CSM create the ideal conditions for particle acceleration and the production of high-energy (HE) neutrinos above 1 TeV.
Aims. We study four strongly interacting Type IIn SNe, 2021acya, 2021adxl, 2022qml, and 2022wed, in order to highlight their peculiar characteristics, derive the kinetic energy of their explosion and the characteristics of the CSM, infer clues on the possible progenitors and their environment, and relate them to the production of HE neutrinos.
Methods. We analysed spectro-photometric data of a sample of interacting SNe to determine their common characteristics and derive the physical properties (radii and masses) of the CSM and the ejecta kinetic energies and compare them to HE neutrino production models.
Results. The SNe analysed in this sample exploded in dwarf star-forming galaxies, and they are consistent with energetic explosions and strong interaction with the surrounding CSM. For SNe 2021acya and 2022wed, we find high CSM masses and mass-loss rates, linking them to very massive progenitors. For SN 2021adxl, the spectral analysis and less extreme CSM mass suggest a stripped-envelope massive star as a possible progenitor. SN 2022qml is marginally consistent with being a Type Ia thermonuclear explosion embedded in a dense CSM. The mass-loss rates for all the SNe are consistent with the expulsion of several solar masses of material during eruptive episodes in the last few decades before the explosion. Finally, we find that the SNe in our sample are marginally consistent with HE neutrino production.
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We thank the anonymous referee for their helpful insights. The author acknowledges the help of Dr. T. Pitik in recreating Figure 22. This paper is supported by fundings from MIUR, PRIN 2017 (grant 20179ZF5KS). IS, AR, and NER are partially supported by the PRIN-INAF 2022 project “Shedding light on the nature of gap transients: from the observations to the models”. AR acknowledges the support GRAWITA Large Program Grant (PI P. D’Avanzo). YZC is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC, Grant No. 12303054), the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2024YFA1611603), the Yunnan Fundamental Research Projects (Grant No. 202401AU070063), and the International Centre of Supernovae, Yunnan Key Laboratory (No. 202302AN360001). JPA was funded by ANID, Millennium Science Initiative, ICN12_009. TP acknowledges the support by ANID through the Beca Doctorado Nacional 202221222222. MN is supported by the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement No. 948381) and by UK Space Agency Grant No. ST/Y000692/1. LG, CPG and TEMB acknowledge financial support from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (MCIN), the Agencia Estatal de Investigación (AEI) 10.13039/501100011033, the European Social Fund (ESF) “Investing in your future”, the European Union Next Generation EU/PRTR funds, the Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme of the European Union, and by the Secretary of Universities and Research (Government of Catalonia), under the PID2020-115253GA-I00 HOSTFLOWS project, 2021-SGR-01270, the 2019 Ramón y Cajal program RYC2019-027683-I, the 2021 Juan de la Cierva program FJC2021-047124-I, the Marie Skłodowska-Curie and the Beatriu de Pinós 2021 BP 00168 programme, and from Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) under the PIE project 20215AT016, and the program Unidad de Excelencia María de Maeztu CEX2020-001058-M. TWC acknowledges the Yushan Young Fellow Program by the Ministry of Education, Taiwan for the financial support. MB, EC and TP acknowledge the financial support from the Slovenian Research Agency (grants I0-0033, P1-0031, J1-8136, J1-2460 and Z1-1853) and the Young Researchers program. PC acknowledges support via Research Council of Finland (grant 340613). MS is funded by the Independent Research Fund Denmark (IRFD, grant number 10.46540/2032-00022B). Based on observations collected at Copernico 1.82m telescope and Schmidt 67/92 telescope (Asiago Mount Ekar, Italy) INAF – Osservatorio Astronomico di Padova. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 101004719. This material reflects only the authors views and the Commission is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained therein. Based on observations made with the Nordic Optical Telescope, owned in collaboration by the University of Turku and Aarhus University, and operated jointly by Aarhus University, the University of Turku and the University of Oslo, representing Denmark, Finland and Norway, the University of Iceland and Stockholm University at the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos, La Palma, Spain, of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. Observations from the Nordic Optical Telescope were obtained through the NUTS2 collaboration, which are supported in part by the Instrument Centre for Danish Astrophysics (IDA). The data presented here were obtained in part with ALFOSC, which is provided by the Instituto de Astrofisica de Andalucia (IAA). This work makes use of data from the Las Cumbres Observatory network. The LCO team is supported by NSF grants AST-1911225 and AST-1911151, and NASA SWIFT grant 80NSSC19K1639. The Liverpool Telescope is operated on the island of La Palma by Liverpool John Moores University in the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias with financial support from the UK Science and Technology Facilities Council. This work was based in part on observations made with the Italian Telescopio Nazionale Galileo (TNG), operated on the island of La Palma by the Fundación Galileo Galilei of the INAF (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica) at the Spanish Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos of the Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias. The Gran Telescopio CANARIAS (GTC) is a 10.4 m telescope with a segmented primary mirror. It is located in one of the top astronomical sites in the Northern Hemisphere: the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (ORM, La Palma, Canary Islands). The GTC is a Spanish initiative led by the Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias (IAC). The project is actively supported by the Spanish Government and the Local Government from the Canary Islands through the European Funds for Regional Development (FEDER) provided by the European Union. The project also includes the participation of Mexico (Instituto de Astronomía de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (IA-UNAM) and Instituto Nacional de Astrofísica, Óptica y Electrónica (INAOE)), and the US University of Florida. Based on observations collected at the European Organisation for Astronomical Research in the Southern Hemisphere under ESO programmes 1103.D-0328 and 105.20TF.001. We acknowledge the use of public data from the Swift data archive. Based on observations obtained with the Samuel Oschin Telescope 48-inch and the 60-inch Telescope at the Palomar Observatory as part of the Zwicky Transient Facility project. ZTF is supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. AST-2034437 and a collaboration including Caltech, IPAC, the Weizmann Institute for Science, the Oskar Klein Center at Stockholm University, the University of Maryland, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron and Humboldt University, the TANGO Consortium of Taiwan, the University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee, Trinity College Dublin, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratories, and IN2P3, France. Operations are conducted by COO, IPAC, and UW. The Pan-STARRS1 Surveys (PS1) and the PS1 public science archive have been made possible through contributions by the Institute for Astronomy, the University of Hawaii, the Pan-STARRS Project Office, the Max-Planck Society and its participating institutes, the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy, Heidelberg and the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics, Garching, The Johns Hopkins University, Durham University, the University of Edinburgh, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, the Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope Network Incorporated, the National Central University of Taiwan, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Grant No. NNX08AR22G issued through the Planetary Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate, the National Science Foundation Grant No. AST-1238877, the University of Maryland, Eotvos Lorand University (ELTE), the Los Alamos National Laboratory, and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation. This work presents results from the European Space Agency (ESA) space mission Gaia. Gaia data are being processed by the Gaia Data Processing and Analysis Consortium (DPAC). Funding for the DPAC is provided by national institutions, in particular the institutions participating in the Gaia MultiLateral Agreement (MLA). The Gaia mission website is https://www.cosmos.esa.int/gaia. The Gaia archive website is https://archives.esac.esa.int/gaia. This work has made use of data from the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project. The Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) project is primarily funded to search for near earth asteroids through NASA grants NN12AR55G, 80NSSC18K0284, and 80NSSC18K1575; byproducts of the NEO search include images and catalogues from the survey area. This work was partially funded by Kepler/K2 grant J1944/80NSSC19K0112 and HST GO-15889, and STFC grants ST/T000198/1 and ST/S006109/1. The ATLAS science products have been made possible through the contributions of the University of Hawaii Institute for Astronomy, the Queen’s University Belfast, the Space Telescope Science Institute, the South African Astronomical Observatory, and The Millennium Institute of Astrophysics (MAS), Chile.
