Information and communication technology (ICT), most notably smartphones and social media, have transformed human social interaction. In this thesis, I examine how ICT has been appropriated in families and what effects it has on family relationships. I use two distinct approaches to answer these questions. The first approach is to systematically review the research concerning ICT use and outcomes for family relationships (Article I). Second, I use population-based data from the Generational Transmissions in Finland (Gentrans) survey’s third wave and statistical methods to examine digital communication in two Finnish family generations (Articles II–IV). The data include 2,663 older adults (68–74 years) and 1,945 young to middle-aged adults (19–56 years).

The systematic review (Article I) categorizes the existing research based on ICT use types (personal use, “technoference,” communication, and co-use) and according to relationship type (romantic relationship, parent-child relationship, and siblings). The review shows that frequent personal ICT use and technoference undermine relationship quality. Romantic relationships are impacted most negatively due to ICT-induced infidelity and jealousy. In contrast, co-use of ICT mostly benefits family relationships. This also applies to communication via ICT, however, media vary in how strongly they are associated with positive relationship outcomes. Based on the systematic review, I argue that across use types, the negative effects of IC on family relationships are more salient than the positive.

The articles that are based on the Gentrans data (Articles II–IV) reveal novel information about Finnish adults’ ICT use in two family generations. Article II examines the relationship between digital communication and traditional methods of communication (e.g., meeting face-to-face and phone calls). Two opposing hypotheses, the reinforcement and displacement hypotheses, are plotted against each other. The former predicts a positive relationship between digital and traditional forms of communication, and the latter predicts a negative association. Using linear regression, the hypotheses are tested separately for a range of family relationship types across the two family generations (e.g., parent-child, grandparent-grandchild, siblings). The results refute the displacement hypothesis, showing that digital communication reinforces other forms of communication. In other words, digital methods appear to have taken a complementary role in family communication.

Article III identifies predictors of social media adoption in the two family generations. In addition, the study examines whether social media adoption in older adults is predicted by the social media adoption of their adult children. The Gentrans data enable the study of this question because actual parent-child dyads are identifiable. The results from the logistic regressions replicate earlier findings showing that, for example, being female and more highly educated predicts social media use; however, the influence of gender and education is less pronounced among older adults. Furthermore, the number of children predicts social media use, as doethe social media use of an adult child. The study highlights that social media adoption, especially among older adults, is contingent on family factors, namely, the number of children and whether the older adults’ children have adopted social media.

Last, Article IV estimates the effect of social media contact (SMC) with family members on happiness using two methods: the linear regression and propensity score matching (PSM) approaches. The PSM method is used to improve the credibility of causal inferences. SMC is examined in a range of family relationships across the two family generations. Based on the socioemotional selectivity theory, we hypothesize that SMC with family members increases happiness among older adults. The study finds that SMC with family members can be a source of happiness in some specific dyads and ages; however, the results do not find older adults specifically to be affected.

In addition to the empirical sections, I discuss digital divides (i.e., inequalities related to ICTs). I examine the extent to which ICT-related inequalities manifest ior are contingent on, family relationships. All of the articles provide insight intdigital divides. First, the systematic review (Article I) finds evidence of the unequal distribution of positive and negative ICT-related outcomes based on family background and relationship type. Second, the Finnish studies (Articles II–IV) suggest that ICT reinforces communication mainly among those with higher baseline communication and that ICT adoption among (older) adults is partly determined by family support. The family perspective has rarely been addressed in the digital divid literature. The conclusions of this thesis highlight the roles that family relationships play in digital divides.

To conclude, ICT has brought both benefits and challenges to family relationships, which manifest differently across generations and types of family relationships. For future research, this dissertation outlines the research emphases so far and points to gaps. In addition, it makes an opening contribution by discussing family perspectives in digital inequalities. The results have implications for the general public regarding their daily digital choices and can be used to promote digital well-being and digital inclusion in society.