A1 Refereed original research article in a scientific journal
A Benchmark for Multi-Modal LiDAR SLAM with Ground Truth in GNSS-Denied Environments
Authors: Sier Ha, Li Qingqing, Yu Xianjia, Peña Queralta Jorge, Zou Zhuo, Westerlund Tomi
Publisher: MDPI
Publication year: 2023
Journal: Remote Sensing
Journal acronym: REMOTE SENS-BASEL
Article number: 3314
Volume: 15
Issue: 13
Number of pages: 15
eISSN: 2072-4292
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15133314
Web address : https://www.mdpi.com/2072-4292/15/13/3314
Self-archived copy’s web address: https://research.utu.fi/converis/portal/detail/Publication/180820026
LiDAR-based simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) approaches have obtained considerable success in autonomous robotic systems. This is in part owing to the high accuracy of robust SLAM algorithms and the emergence of new and lower-cost LiDAR products. This study benchmarks the current state-of-the-art LiDAR SLAM algorithms with a multi-modal LiDAR sensor setup, showcasing diverse scanning modalities (spinning and solid state) and sensing technologies, and LiDAR cameras, mounted on a mobile sensing and computing platform. We extend our previous multi-modal multi-LiDAR dataset with additional sequences and new sources of ground truth data. Specifically, we propose a new multi-modal multi-LiDAR SLAM-assisted and ICP-based sensor fusion method for generating ground truth maps. With these maps, we then match real-time point cloud data using a normal distributions transform (NDT) method to obtain the ground truth with a full six-degrees-of-freedom (DOF) pose estimation. These novel ground truth data leverage high-resolution spinning and solid-state LiDARs. We also include new open road sequences with GNSS-RTK data and additional indoor sequences with motion capture (MOCAP) ground truth, complementing the previous forest sequences with MOCAP data. We perform an analysis of the positioning accuracy achieved, comprising ten unique configurations generated by pairing five distinct LiDAR sensors with five SLAM algorithms, to critically compare and assess their respective performance characteristics. We also report the resource utilization in four different computational platforms and a total of five settings (Intel and Jetson ARM CPUs). Our experimental results show that the current state-of-the-art LiDAR SLAM algorithms perform very differently for different types of sensors. More results, code, and the dataset can be found at GitHub.
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